The technique used with this analysis is utilizing DNA of the organic material, as DNA is carrying the genetic information for an organism. DNA is built up by four bases; adenosine, thymine, guanine and cysteine and contains the basic code that tells each cell how to grow, function, and reproduce.  All cells in organic material carries a copy of DNA and the DNA is identical in each cell of an organism. The more closely related species are, the more alike are the DNA.

The polymerase chain reaction is more or less mimicking the cell division in a living organism. Using the DNA in the sample, a copy of a specific area of a DNA strand is multiplied. The PCR instrument performs multiple cycles to enhance the few copies of DNA present in the organic material to enable detection.

PCR is followed by DNA sequencing to determine the combination of bases for the targeted DNA replica. With traditional PCR sequencing only one species can be detected in a sample. With NGS the advantage is that multiple species can be detected simultaneously. For result interpretation of DNA sequences public data bases are used, like NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information).

The technique used is utilizing DNA of the organic material, as DNA is carrying the genetic information for an organism. DNA is built up by four bases; adenosine, thymine, guanine and cysteine and contains the basic code that tells each cell how to grow, function, and reproduce.  All cells in organic material carries a copy of DNA and the DNA is identical in each cell of an organism. The more closely related species are, the more alike are the DNA.

The polymerase chain reaction is more or less mimicking the cell division in a living organism. Using the DNA in the sample, a copy of a specific area of a DNA strand is multiplied. The PCR instrument performs multiple cycles to enhance the few copies of DNA present in the organic material to enable detection.

In real-time PCR, the amount of DNA is measured after each cycle via fluorescent dyes that yield increasing fluorescent signal in direct proportion to the number of PCR product molecules generated relating back to the initial content of DNA present in the sample.

NMR uses detection of stable nuclides or isotopes. Stable isotopes are nuclides that are non-radioactive and as such do not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay. They are stable over time and used as markers in a wide variety of circumstances.

NMR measure signals with the electronic structures and functional groups information from molecules. For detecting adulteration in spices and herbs 1H proton is the target nuclide. A magnetic field is induced to the sample material inducing a resonance that is measured. The NMR analysis of a sample material give rise to a large amount of analytical data which is in turn interpreted by chemometrics. Chemometrics use statistical tools to reduce the multidimensionality of data and allow discovery of differences between different groups of samples such as authentic and adulterated. The NMR analysis generates a so-called Fingerprint, a profile of the analysed sample. The Fingerprint profile is compared to a data base.

An amount of sample material is weighed and subsequently dried or incinerated under controlled circumstances. Weight differences between pre- and post-sampling is determined to give a result.

Chromatography is an analytical technique that can separate a mixture of chemical substances into its individual components, so that the individual components can be measured.  It relies on the differential distribution of components between a stationary phase and a mobile phase (usually liquid or gas). As the mixture in the mobile phase travels through the stationary phase, each component interacts differently, leading to distinct bands or spots, allowing identification and quantification. There are several variants of chromatographic techniques where the different solutions for injection, separation and detection of the components can be chosen. The choice is based on the components to be analysed and their chemical characteristics, the samples to be analysed and the requirements for sensitivity and selectivity of the result.

Liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)

Liquid chromatography is the separation technique of choice for a broad range of compound that usually are non-volatile and/or thermally labile. In combination with mass spectrometer(s), the identification become specific and selective on the compounds atomic mass or fragmentation pattern. This set-up allows multiple compounds to be analysed simultaneously, even if they are present in complex mixtures in the sample.

Gas Chromatography- mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS)

Gas Chromatography (GC) is a separation technique for compounds that are volatile. The compounds are vaporized at the injection to a gas stream over the stationary phase. When the GC is couple to mass spectrometer(s), the identification of the compound of interest is based on atomic mass or fragmentation patterns, as explained above.

Immunoaffinity chromatography-liquid chromatography-fluorescence detector (IAC-LC-FLD)

IAC-LC-FLD is a type of liquid chromatography in which the stationary phase consists of an antibody or antibody-related reagent. A biologically related binding agent is used for the selective purification or analysis of a target compound, prior to the traditional chromatography separation. The identification and quantification are executed for by the usage of a fluorescence detector (FLD). It is a highly sensitive and selective detection method as it exploits the fluorescence properties of certain compounds. This technique is applicable on toxins and other biologically active compounds.

Liquid chromatography – Ultraviolet (LC-UV) and­ Liquid chromatography – Diode Array Detector (LC-DAD)

LC-UV is liquid chromatography in combination with a UV detector that measures the amount of ultraviolet or visible light absorbed by components of interest. The ability of a compound to absorb UV light is dependent of the chemical structure of component.

LC-DAD is using the same UV light absorbance ability of compound for detection but has the ability to measure at multiple wavelengths simultaneously. This gives more selectivity and specificity to the analytical identification in complex mixtures.

Liquid chromatography Gas chromatography Flame-Ionization Detection (LC-GC-FID)

LC-GC-FID is an analytical technique that combines both liquid and gas chromatographic separation prior to detection.  Components are separated in a liquid followed by a separation with gas then detection with FID. FID is a detector where gaseous eluent is burnt in a flame, producing gas-phase ions of the analytes that are detected using an electrode. It is used for complex mixtures where groups of analytes of similar character need to be separated and individually identified, as example aromatic compound in oil mixture.

Thin layer chromatography (TLC)

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is the first generation of chromatographic methods, but still relevant due torobustness and ease of use. TLC is an affinity-based method used to separate compounds in a mixture. TLC is a highly versatile separation method that is widely used for both qualitative and quantitative sample analysis.

In TLC, the stationary phase is a thin adsorbent material layer. The sample is spotted onto one end of the TLC plate and placed into a closed chamber with an organic solvent (mobile phase). The mobile phase travels up the plate by capillary forces and sample components migrate varying distances based on their differential affinities for the stationary and mobile phases. The separated components appear as spots on the plate and the retention factor (Rf) of each component is assessed.

ELISA is a technique to detect the presence of antigens in biological samples. ELISA is an immunoassays that relies on antibodies for detection of target antigen using highly specific antibody-antigen interactions.

In an ELISA assay, the antigen is immobilized to a solid surface. This is done either directly or via the use of a capture antibody itself immobilized on the surface. The antigen is then complexed to a detection antibody conjugated with a molecule such as an enzyme or a fluorophore for detection.

ICP-MS is a technique used for determining elements. An inductively coupled plasma (ICP) ionizes the sample in very high temperature in an Argon plasma.  Sample is converted into ions and consequently determined with a mass spectrometer (MS). The MS separates the ions according to their mass for determination.

Microscopy is a technique used to view objects that cannot be seen by the naked eye with the help of magnification. Structures in the sample material can with the help of magnification be identified and quantified.

Steam distillation is a method used to separate components present in a mixture, particularly when the substances involved are sensitive to heat. Liquid (Steam) is pressed through the sample material and substances are carried along by the steam, which then cools until it condenses and can be measured.

Photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL) is a nondestructive and contactless optical method of probing the electronic structure of materials. The sample is exposed to a defined radiation dose of photons (light) and the re-emission of the light is measured.  

Microbiological cultivation is a biological activity wherein microorganisms multiply themselves in a predetermined culture media under laboratory conditions. Different microbial culture media are used to identify different types of microorganisms.